Chapter 1 : Nature and Significance of Political Theory

Nature and Significance of Political Theory

Nature of Political Theory

What is Political?

• Polity: An organization designed to regulate the whole community where rules are made, decisions are taken, and authority is exercised over each member.
• 'Political': Refers to something related to a polity; it denotes the 'public' sphere, as distinguished from the private sphere or matters applicable only to a limited number of persons.
• Sheldon S. Wolin (Politics and Vision; 1960): Identified the political arrangement as uniquely concerned with what is 'common' to the whole community.
  • Primary responsibilities of political institutions: national defence, internal order, dispensing of justice, and economic regulation (beneficial to all members).
• The State: An essential component of polity enjoying a unique position among social institutions.
  • Aristotle (ancient Greek philosopher): Described man by nature as a 'political animal'. Living in a state is so natural that one who lives outside it or does not need it is "either a beast or an angel".
• Etymology: 'Polity', 'politics', and 'political' derive from the Greek word polis (ancient Greek city-state).
  • Ancient Greek city-states were small communities separated by geographical barriers where all institutions aimed at securing a 'good life' were part of 'politics'.
• Modern Scope: Draws a distinction between public and private spheres. Politics is confined to institutions and activities in the public domain (e.g., cabinet decisions, parliament, election campaigns, people's movements). Religion, art, and culture belong to the private sphere unless regulation is required for public order.

Scope of Political Theory

• Political Theory: Refers to a systematic knowledge of political phenomena.
• It is concerned with three types of statements:
  1. Empirical statement: Based on observation through sense-experience alone, that is the experience gained through sight, sound, smell, taste and touch of the concrete phenomena.
  2. Logical statement: Based on reasoning (e.g., 'two plus two is four').
  3. Evaluative statement: Based on value-judgement (e.g., 'men are born free and equal').
• Political Science vs. Political Philosophy:
  • Political Science relies only on empirical and logical statements (capable of verification). Champions of Positivism sought to build political science and other social sciences (e.g., sociology, economics, history, etc.) on the foundations of the methodology of natural sciences (e.g., physics, chemistry, biology, etc.).
  • Political Philosophy relies on evaluative statements. Positivists allege these are subjective preferences, while contemporary thinking affirms values have a sound logical structure and are essential for public policy.
• George Catlin (Political Quarterly; March, 1957):
  • Divided political theory into political science (deals with facts/control) and political philosophy (deals with ends/final values).
  • Pleaded for the fusion of sociology and political science to observe phenomena of control across the social field.
• Andrew Hacker (Political Theory: Philosophy, Ideology, Science; 1961):
  • Argues every political scientist plays a double role: part scientist and part philosopher.
  • Role of Political Science: Describing and explaining realities of political behaviour; drawing generalized propositions about state-citizen relations and power.
  • Role of Political Philosophy: Prescribing goals citizens/states ought to pursue; generalizing about right conduct and legitimate uses of power.
  • Condition: Philosophical parts must be informed by a profound understanding of the facts of political life.

"In practice political decisions usually entail a mixture of empirical and moral judgements... In politics 'refusing to decide' is simply deciding to allow others to decide for you." — Robert Dahl (Modern Political Analysis; 1977)

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Table: Focus and Method of Study in Political Theory

(Source: Adapted from Robert Dahl, Modern Political Analysis; 1977)

Nature of Political Science

Proceeds via the Scientific Method through four steps:

1. Observation: Relies on sense-experience alone; rules out supernatural/metaphysical causation.

2. Generalization: Based on observing regularities to establish correlation between variables.

   • Inductive method: Proceeding from 'particular to general', i.e., arriving at a general rule after observing similarities in particular cases.
   • Deductive method: Proceeding from 'general to particular', i.e., postulating a general rule and then testing its validity by observation of particular cases.
   • Must be expressed as a general rule (preferably quantitative) capable of verification.

3. Explanation: Giving reasons for the general rule to ensure correlations are not mere coincidences.

4. Prediction and Prescription: Anticipating outcomes and suggesting measures for efficiency/stability.

• Behavioural approach: Exemplifies the scientific approach. Focuses on actual behaviour of human beings rather than formal legal institutions (which are dissolved into 'systems' and 'processes').
• Post-behavioural approach: Insists on making political science subservient to human values and ends. Revives concern with 'values' without compromising the scientific method for studying 'facts'.

Nature of Political Philosophy

• D.D. Raphael (Problems of Political Philosophy; 1976):
  • Rejects the view that political science deals only with the 'real' and philosophy with the 'ideal'.
  • The central concern of political philosophy is critical evaluation of beliefs.
  • "Philosophy differs from science in that science seeks explanation while philosophy seeks justification" (giving rational grounds for accepting/rejecting beliefs).
• Clarification of Concepts: Political philosophy clarifies vague concepts (society, authority, social class, justice, liberty, democracy) through:
  1. Analysis: Specifying elements (e.g., defining sovereignty as supreme legal authority).
  2. Synthesis: Showing logical relationships (e.g., a right involves an obligation).
  3. Improvement: Recommending definitions that assist clarity.

Conclusion: Theory vs. Ideology

• Andrew Hacker cautions distinguishing political theory from ideology.
• Political Theory: Dispassionate, disinterested search for principles of the good state/society. Scholarly detachment is the keynote. It exemplified the Socratic function of 'speaking truth to power'.
• Ideology: Clouded, biased, and interested. Intends to justify a particular system of power (defending the status quo or criticizing it for a new distribution of power). Focuses on selected parts of reality and distorts description/explanation.
  • Capitalism: Upholders regard private property as most conducive to justice and social progress.
  • Socialism: Upholders regard social ownership of the means of social production as the most suitable method of achieving these ends.
  • Nationalism: Upholders place national pride and national interest above any other goal.
  • Internationalism: Supporters tend to disregard national boundaries to determine the amount of human progress.

Key Terms

📌 Exam Tidbits

• Sheldon S. Wolin (1960) defined the 'political' as uniquely concerned with what is 'common' to the whole community.
• Aristotle famously defined man as a 'political animal' who must live in a state.
• George Catlin (1957) divided political theory into political science (facts) and political philosophy (values).
• Andrew Hacker (1961) argued every theorist plays a double role: part scientist (describing behaviour) and part philosopher (prescribing goals).
• D.D. Raphael (1976) distinguished the two branches: science seeks explanation, while philosophy seeks justification.
• Scientific Method Steps: Observation → Generalization → Explanation → Prediction/Prescription.
• Theory vs. Ideology: Theory is a disinterested search for truth; ideology is a biased rationalization for partisan ends/power distribution.

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Significance of Political Theory

Control of Social Life

• Scientific analysis of political life enables the understanding and solving of social problems.
• Just as geology helps prevent earthquake havoc, medical science cures diseases, or the knowledge of physics enables us to generate electricity from our thermal and water resources, political science enables us to understand causes of conflict/violence, find remedies for political instability, and secure development from human resources.

Social Criticism and Reconstruction

• Political philosophy is concerned with right/wrong and good/evil, providing logical grounds for criticizing society and speculating on a good society.
• A galaxy of political philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, St. Augustine, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Hegel, Marx, Mill and Macpherson have analysed prevailing ills and given schemes for social reconstruction (though none are the final truth):
  • Plato: Exposed the modus operandi of selfish/cunning politicians in a democracy.
  • Machiavelli: Vividly described the character of selfish and greedy people.
  • Marx: Identified sources of conflict between owners and non-owners of property.
  • Macpherson: Exposed the intricacies of power structure in contemporary society obstructing creative freedom.

Clarification of Concepts

• Sheldon S. Wolin (Politics and Vision; 1960): Noted the widespread tendency to use non-political words for political matters (e.g., 'the authority of the father', 'the authority of the church', or 'the authority of Parliament').
• Political philosophy determines precise technical meanings for terms (society, authority, social class, liberty, equality, justice, democracy) acceptable across different ideologies, paving the way for dialogue.
• Without precise definitions, demagogues and autocrats (e.g., Mussolini [1883-1945] in Italy) use terms to mislead people, evade reason, and legitimize oppressive regimes.

Encouragement to Mutual Respect and Toleration

• Andrew Hacker (Political Theory: Philosophy, Ideology, Science; 1961): "Political theory is a never-ending conversation among theorists... Politics is, after all, the most democratic of sciences."
• The tradition inspires understanding of rival viewpoints, generates mutual respect, and prompts peaceful resolution of differences.

Conclusion

• Three Functions of Political Theory:
  1. Description (specialty of Political Science via empirical method).
  2. Criticism (specialty of Political Philosophy via value-judgement).
  3. Reconstruction (specialty of Political Philosophy).
• Positivists, neo-positivists, and behaviouralists attempted to drop value-judgement from political theory.
• Post-behaviouralism (1969) and the 1970s and 1980s revival of political philosophy renewed emphasis on values, driven by global concerns like environmentalism, feminism, human rights, and subaltern social justice.
• David Held (Political Theory Today; 1991): Warned that without systematic pursuit of political theory, politics will be left to the ignorant, self-interested, or those with a 'will to power'.

Key Terms

No source-defined terms in this section.

📌 Exam Tidbits

• Three core functions of Political Theory: Description (Science), Criticism (Philosophy), and Reconstruction (Philosophy).
• Plato criticized democratic politicians; Marx analyzed property-based class conflict; Macpherson critiqued contemporary power structures obstructing freedom.
• Sheldon S. Wolin highlighted the danger of conflating non-political and political usages of terms like 'authority'.
• Andrew Hacker described political theory as a "never-ending conversation among theorists."
• David Held (1991) argued the absence of political theory leaves politics to those with a mere 'will to power'.

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Debate on the Decline of Political Theory

Political theory implies an intellectual effort to attain a systematic knowledge about the goals and methods of politics. In this sense, it has a long tradition spreading over two-and-a-half millenniums.

The Decline Thesis (1950s-1960s)

Exponents of new political science questioned the relevance of traditional political theory.

David Easton

• Texts: 'The Decline of Political Theory' (Journal of Politics; 1951) and Political System: An Inquiry into the State of Political Science (1953).
• Arguments:
  • Traditional theory was based on mere speculation and lacked acute observation of political reality.
  • It was a product of past social turmoil (Greece in pre-Plato days, Italy in the fifteenth century, England in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and France in the eighteenth century) and had no contemporary relevance.
  • No outstanding political philosopher existed after Marx (1818-83) and J.S. Mill (1806-73).
  • Political scientists lagged behind economists and sociologists. During WWII (1939-45), economists, sociologists, and psychologists played an active role in decision-making, but political scientists were ignored.
• Prescription: Build a behavioural, value-neutral political science focused on causal theory to explain political behaviour, leaving society to evolve its own values.

Alfred Cobban

• Text: 'The Decline of Political Theory' (Political Science Quarterly; 1953).
• Arguments:
  • Theory lost significance in both capitalist systems (inspired by the idea of 'libertarian democracy' but dominated by bureaucracy/military, lacking democratic theorists) and communist systems (dominated by party oligarchy).
  • Classical thinkers had narrow frames: Hegel focused only on the 'territorial state' and Marx only on the 'proletariat class'. Contemporary politics operates on too large a scale for partial theories.
  • Blamed logical positivists for excluding values.
• Conclusion: Political science must evolve criteria of judgement beyond natural science methodology to revive political philosophy.

Seymour Martin Lipset

• Text: Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics (1960).
• Argument: The search for the 'good society' had ended because values were already decided. US democracy was "the closest approximation to the good society itself in operation".

The Defence and Revival of Political Philosophy

Champions of political philosophy rejected the behaviouralist claim.

Leo Strauss

• Texts: 'What is Political Philosophy?' (Journal of Politics; 1957) and 'An Epilogue' in Essays on the Scientific Study of Politics (ed. Herbert J. Storing; 1962).
• Argument: The "new science of politics" is actually a symptom of the decline. Positivism ignores normative issues and asserts equal importance of all social values. It denies that certain things are intrinsically high while others are intrinsically low, thus obliterating the distinction between men and brutes as if it destroys the identity of clean water by mixing it with dirty water.

Dante Germino

• Texts: Beyond Ideology: The Revival of Political Theory (1967) and 'The Contemporary Relevance of the Classics of Political Philosophy' (Handbook of Political Science, ed. by Fred I. Greenstein, Nelson W. Polsby, Vol. I; 1975).
• Causes of Decline: In most of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century, there were two major causes: (a) Rise of positivism/craze for science; (b) Prevalence of political ideologies culminating in Marxism.
• The Revival: Ascendancy seen in thinkers like Michael Oakeshott, Hannah Arendt, Bertrand de Jouvenal, Leo Strauss, Eric Voegelin, and later John Rawls, C.B. Macpherson, Christian Bay, Robert Nozick, Herbert Marcuse, Jürgen Habermas, Alasdair MacIntyre, Michael Walzer.
• Argument: Political philosophy is a critical study of right order. Detachment ≠ ethical neutrality. Behaviouralism uncritically endorses the status quo instead of performing the Socratic function of 'speaking truth to power'.

Herbert Marcuse

• Text: Negations: Essays in Critical Theory (1968).
• Argument: When social science adopts natural science language (focusing only on observable/measurable behaviour), it supports the status quo. It ceases to be an instrument of social inquiry and becomes an instrument of social control (e.g., measuring voter turnout without questioning if the electoral system itself is democratic).

Synthesis and Post-Behaviouralism

Since the 1970s, the dispute largely subsided as both sides integrated methods.

• David Easton (APSA Presidential Address; 1969): Launched the post-behavioural revolution. Sought to convert political science from 'pure' to 'applied' science to solve contemporary crises, renewing concern with values.
• Karl Popper (The Open Society and Its Enemies; 1945): Used scientific method to recommend social values.
• John Rawls (A Theory of Justice; 1971): Adopted empirical method to arrive at principles of justice.
• C.B. Macpherson (Democratic Theory-Essays in Retrieval; 1973): Attacked the empirical theory of democracy of Joseph Schumpeter (1883-1950) and Robert Dahl (1915-2014); advanced a radical theory of democracy.
• Herbert Marcuse & Jürgen Habermas (1929-): Used strong empirical insight in their critical analysis of contemporary capitalism.
• Conclusion: Political science strengthens means; political philosophy determines ends. They are interdependent.

Key Terms

📌 Exam Tidbits

• David Easton initially declared the decline of political theory (1951), blaming speculation, but later launched the value-conscious post-behavioural revolution (1969).
• Alfred Cobban (1953) argued Hegel and Marx were too narrow (territorial state vs. proletariat) for modern large-scale politics.
• S.M. Lipset (1960) controversially claimed the US was the closest approximation to the 'good society', ending the need for normative search.
• Leo Strauss (1957) attacked positivism for treating all values equally, thus obliterating the distinction between men and brutes.
• Dante Germino (1967) blamed positivism and Marxism for the decline, and credited thinkers like Oakeshott, Arendt, and Strauss with its revival.
• Herbert Marcuse (1968) warned that scientific social science acts as an instrument of "social control" rather than social inquiry.
• C.B. Macpherson (1973) critiqued the empirical democratic theories of Schumpeter and Dahl.

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