Chapter 13 : Enlightenment and Enlightened Despotism

Enlightenment and Enlightened Despotism

Introduction to the Enlightenment

• Context: The eighteenth century witnessed material expansion, prosperity, and a marked rise in literary production across Europe. National culture became cosmopolitan, crossing political boundaries.
• Definition: The Enlightenment was not a coherent body of ideas but a collection of philosophical views in vogue among intellectuals during the eighteenth century. The definition of the Enlightenment remains difficult, with many new interpretations and assessments emerging that question past views.
• Core Philosophy: Based on rationalism and humanism, originating from classical times and the Renaissance.
• Basic Premises:
• Natural, rather than supernatural, forces governed the entire universe.
• Rigorous application of 'scientific methods' was essential.
• Science could help the human race achieve infinite improvement.
• Religious Stance: Thinkers did not reject God; most were Deists who believed that once a perfect universe was created, there was no more divine intervention.
• Three Distinct Stages of the Enlightenment:

1. First Phase (Early 18th century): Greatly influenced by the Scientific Revolution.
2. Second Phase ('High Enlightenment'): Began with Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws in 1748 and lasted till the era of Voltaire.
3. Third Phase (Post-1778): Dominated by Rousseau's ideas.

Chief Ideas and Intellectual Trends

• Scientific Foundations: Stemmed from the scientific method suggested by Bacon and Descartes (dispassionate, empirical observation to arrive at general laws).
• Kepler (laws on celestial bodies) and Galileo (laws on terrestrial bodies) provided mathematical precision.
• Isaac Newton (gravitational laws) demonstrated that nature was governed by humanly perceivable universal laws, emphasizing observation, application, and empiricism.
• John Locke (Essay Concerning Human Understanding) propounded that everything is determined by the environment.
• Political Philosophy: Constructed without reference to divine revelation. The scientific spirit was used against superstitions, inhumanity, and irrationality of existing governments (e.g., divine right of rulers).
• Target of Criticism: The political and administrative structure of the ancien regime in France and the church (considered the most privileged, wealthy body with unlimited power).
• State Formation: Most thinkers regarded the social contract as the true basis of state formation.

Major Intellectual Groups

Historiographical Interpretations of the Enlightenment

Religious Views

• Advocated scientific method → rejected supernaturalism and miracles → condemned…