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History · Europe in Transition: From Feudalism to Industrialization

Chapter 2 : The Face of Europe in the Late-Fifteenth Century

Table of contents49 sections
  1. 1.The Face of Europe in the Late-Fifteenth Century
  2. 2.GEOGRAPHICAL FRONTIERS
  3. 3.Regional Divisions of Europe
  4. 4.Specific Developments in Southern and Western Europe
  5. 5.Key Terms
  6. 6.📌 Exam Tidbits
  7. 7.FEUDAL STRUCTURE IN EUROPE
  8. 8.The Feudal Hierarchy
  9. 9.Peasant Classification
  10. 10.Feudal Operations and Rent
  11. 11.Historiography and Debates on Feudalism
  12. 12.Key Terms
  13. 13.📌 Exam Tidbits
  14. 14.IMPACT OF BLACK DEATH ON AGRARIAN ECONOMY
  15. 15.The Black Death (1347–1350)
  16. 16.Post-Crisis Economic Shifts (15th Century)
  17. 17.The Agrarian Divergence: Western vs Eastern Europe
  18. 18.Key Terms
  19. 19.📌 Exam Tidbits
  20. 20.CRAFTS AND INDUSTRY
  21. 21.The Guild System
  22. 22.Major Industrial Sectors
  23. 23.Key Terms
  24. 24.📌 Exam Tidbits
  25. 25.TRADING AND COMMERCIAL ACTIVITIES
  26. 26.Business Organizations (Italian Innovations)
  27. 27.Credit and Accounting
  28. 28.Major Merchant-Banker Families
  29. 29.Key Terms
  30. 30.📌 Exam Tidbits
  31. 31.THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH
  32. 32.Three Phases of Institutional Crisis
  33. 33.Rise of National Churches
  34. 34.The Renaissance Papacy
  35. 35.Key Terms
  36. 36.📌 Exam Tidbits
  37. 37.THE POLITICAL MAP OF EUROPE
  38. 38.Western Europe (Rise of Centralized Monarchies)
  39. 39.Eastern and Northern Europe
  40. 40.Central Europe (The Holy Roman Empire)
  41. 41.Key Terms
  42. 42.📌 Exam Tidbits
  43. 43.ITALIAN CITY STATES
  44. 44.The Five Major States
  45. 45.Venetian vs Florentine Economy
  46. 46.Innovations in Statecraft and Diplomacy
  47. 47.Key Terms
  48. 48.📌 Exam Tidbits
  49. 49.Quick-Recall Box

Chapter preview

The Face of Europe in the Late-Fifteenth Century

GEOGRAPHICAL FRONTIERS

The late-fifteenth-century European economy and demography were heavily influenced by geographical features, climate, and natural resources (especially coal and iron). Europe's mid-land position, surrounded by water on three sides, facilitated naval strength and global expansion.

Regional Divisions of Europe

RegionGeographical Features & ClimateEconomic & Political Characteristics
Eastern Europe (Russia)Deciduous region; artificial eastern boundary (Ural Mountains); blocked from seas by Tatars/Turks (Black Sea) and Lithuanians/Swedes/Finns (Baltic).Grew rye, barley, oats, wheat. Sparse population hindered development. Trade strengthened feudalism. Expansion directed eastward (reached Pacific by 1639). Russia's long and historic remoteness from the sea may be seen as a major reason for her aloofness from western Europe.
Central EuropeTransitional zone (glaciated lowland in north, mountains/basins in middle, plains in lower). Marginal climate.Hub of manufacturing, commerce, and intellect. Rich in silver, copper, iron. Lacked political unity (numerous small/large states like Poland, Prussia, Brandenburg and many others); powerful feudal structure.
Northern EuropeScandinavia (Sweden, Norway, Finland) and Low Countries. Affected by historical glaciations ('Great Ice Age'). Low Countries had coastal regions below sea level.Low Countries: Land reclamation via dikes; precocious city life; textile centre; later agrarian/dairy leader with numerous commercial advantages exploited from the sixteenth century onwards. Baltic Sea: Cereal production centre.
Southern Europe (Mediterranean Zone)Alpine territory (barrier to transport to the north); Iberian, Italian, and Greek peninsulas. Hilly/mountainous coastlines. Scanty summer rain, mild/wet winters.Termed 'the Mediterranean zone' by Braudel. Based on the Mediterranean triad (wine, olive, corn). Pastoralism dominated over crop farming.
Western EuropeMaritime region with sufficient rainfall and fertile tracts (e.g., Seine basin).First signs of economic transformation and feudal decay. Agricultural recovery, enclosures, rural cottage industry, and political centralization.

Specific Developments in Southern and Western Europe

The Iberian Peninsula (Spain)

  • Separated from France by the Pyrenees; interior made arid by Bay of Biscay mountains.
  • Concentrated on sheep farming, promoted by the Moorish population in the 12th century.
  • Mesta: A guild of shepherds that introduced the Merino sheep (best in the world).
  • Created special migratory highways (350 to…
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Chapter 3 : The Renaissance and Society