Chapter 1 : HISTORICAL MOORINGS OF THE INDIAN SOCIETY

HISTORICAL MOORINGS OF THE INDIAN SOCIETY

Introduction to the Indian Society and Culture

India possesses a cultural heritage that is ancient, extensive, and varied, shaped by its geographic, ethnic, religious, and linguistic background. The prehistoric Indus valley civilisation flourished over 4,000 years ago, followed by the Vedic civilisation which laid India's spiritual and philosophical foundation. Subsequent Jain and Buddhist movements spread this spiritual wealth among the masses, with Buddhism even spreading abroad.

Opinions of the scholars differ regarding the depth of its past. According to a popular estimate, Indian society covers a span of 5000 years. Over this period, waves of immigrants from different ethnic, linguistic, and religious backgrounds merged into the population. The present-day composite culture evolved through a sequence of cultural contact → cultural diffusion → cultural conflict → cultural assimilation.

Two foundational ideals of Indian culture took shape in these early phases:

1. The spiritual nature of man.
2. The acceptance of all cultures as valid expressions of eternal values.

Despite the encyclopaedic multiplicity of beliefs and practices, a pervading unity binds them together, often described as the "Hindu spirit."

Key Terms

📌 Exam Tidbits

• Sri Ramakrishna Mission (The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. I): "India's cultural heritage is one of the most ancient, extensive, and varied among all those which make up the cultural heritage of mankind. Throughout the ages many races and peoples contributed to India's culture. Some came into contact with her only temporarily, others settled permanently within her borders. The keynote of the distinctive culture thus evolved was synthesis on the basis of eternal values."
• Sri Ramakrishna Mission (The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. I): "..... in these early phases of India's two ideals took shape which were to be the foundations of the whole structure of Indian culture; the spiritual nature of man, and the acceptance of all cultures as valid expressions of eternal values."
• Sri Ramakrishna Mission (The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. I): ".... possess a unity of character and attitude which makes the manifold a single whole, which we might describe as the Hindu spirit. The civilisation which is inspired by the spiritual insight of our sages is marked by a certain moral integrity, a fundamental loyalty, a fine balance of individual desires and social demands, and it is these that are responsible for its vitality and continuity. To a departure from the ideals can be traced the present weakness and disorder of the Hindu civilisation."
• Estimated span of Indian society: 5000 years.
• Age of Indus valley civilisation: Over 4,000 years ago.

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INDIAN TRADITION : CHARACTERISTICS

The term "Indian tradition" refers to the Indian cultural tradition, which possesses 6 special characteristics:

1. Indian Cultural Tradition is Ancient and Continuous

Indian cultural tradition extends over at least 5000 years. With the exception of China and Japan, India is the only country in the world with an unbroken stream of cultural tradition.

• Dr. Iravathi Karve called India "the epitome of the world" because no Western country has so extensive and diverse a cultural tradition.
• Oswald Spengler (who studied 30 civilisations) and Arnold Toynbee (who studied 19 civilisations) have said that India maintained its cultural continuity throughout history because of its religious dominance.
• Sorokin and Dr. S. Radhakrishnan stated that India withstood foreign invasions of the Persians, Sythians, Greeks, Huns, Turks, and others and maintained an unbroken chain of cultural tradition for at least 4000 years.

2. Unity in Diversity

"Unity in diversity" is a stereotyped phrase that has become part of India's self-identity.

• Foreign Observers: This diversity was observed and recorded by foreign travellers including Megasthenese [315 B.C], Fa-Heien [A.D. 405 - 11], Huan Tsang [A.D. 630 - 44], Alberuni [A.D. 1030], Marco Polo [A.D. 1288, 93], and Ibn Batuta [A.D. 1325-51].
• Demographic Reality: India is the 7th largest and second most populous nation, occupying around 2.4% of the world's land area and possessing 15% of the world's population. Settlements range from 500 and 1000 people to 10 to 12 million people. Its diversities are reflected in social, cultural, economic, political, religious, racial and other matters, running through races, religions, castes, tribes, languages, social customs, cultural and subcultural beliefs, political philosophies, ideologies, and so on.
• Basis of Unity: M.N. Srinivas is of the opinion that the unity of India is essentially religious; despite different deities, scriptures (Puranas, Brahmanas, Epics, Vedas) knit heterogeneous groups into one religious society with a common goal of earning religious merit via pilgrimage. Unity is also visualised in the geo-political sphere, tradition of accommodation, tradition of interdependence, and emotional bonds. People speak different languages but have common languages such as Hindi and English to communicate. Economic, social and political philosophies are broadly based on equality, justice, liberty, rationality and secularism.

3. Dharma as the Life-Centre of the Society

Every nation has a "national ethos". Swami Vivekananda stated that political power represents the English ethos, material and scientific progress represents the American ethos, material pleasure and enjoyment represent the French ethos, while religion and spirituality represent the Indian ethos. Religion and spirituality permeate our intellectual, philosophical, artistic, scientific, cultural, social, political, economical in brief the whole of our life.

• The concept of Dharma is the basic idea tying Indian thought together, explaining the functions of different people and institutions.
• Those who make the greatest appeal to the Indian mind are not the military conquerors, not the rich merchants or the great diplomats, but the holy sages, the rsis.
• Indians regard their nation not merely as a geographic entity but as their Karma Bhumi, Tapo Bhumi, and Punya Bhumi.

4. Scientific Aspect of the Indian Heritage

Ancient Indian knowledge is often condensed, leading to the false impression that the heritage is purely religio-philosophical. The reasons for such an impression are well known: references on science and technology are scattered in several works, whose main themes are not related to science and technology; these works are in Sanskrit and Pali that are currently not in use; and the ancient knowledge is often in a highly condensed form which can be understood only by experts in those languages. Glorious scientific traditions include:

• Mathematics: Concept of zero, place of value system of numeration, square roots, cube roots, and powers of ten. Brahmagupta's achievements predated European mathematicians by centuries.
• Medicine: Ayurveda classics like Charaka Samhita and Ashtanga Hridaya (medicine), and Sushruta Samhita (surgery).
• Other fields: Metallurgy (iron, zinc, copper and its alloys), temple architecture, town planning (drainage systems), civil architecture (roads, bridges, forts, ports), irrigation, agriculture, ship-building, navigation, and textiles (cotton and silk).

5. Spirit of Tolerance: Synthetic Approach to Religion

Hinduism accepts all religions as true, believing the essence is one while approaches differ.

• The Hindu mind is all-embracing, calling its culture manava dharma or manava samskriti (human culture).
• The Jain theory of Syadvada (the theory of "may be") suggests all knowledge is probable and relative, teaching restraint in absolute judgements.
• Modern thinkers (Sri Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Sri Aurobindo, Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, Swami Vivekananda, Tagore, Gandhiji, Radhakrishnan, Bhagawandas) stressed this synthetic approach. Tagore in Religion of Man emphasised humanism as the core of all religions.
• India followed a "Live and Let Live" policy, accommodating divergent races and foreign cultures, which added to its richness.

6. Harmony with Nature

Nature is embedded in Indian culture; animals, birds, trees, mountains, and rivers are part of the Hindu way of life.

• Animal-God Associations: Shiva has the Nandi or the Bull as his mount [vahana]; Vishnu, the Garuda; Brahma, the Swan; Indra, the Elephant; Surya, the Horse; Durga, the Lion; Ganesh, the Rat; Muruga, the Peacock.
• Sacred Mountains: Himalayas (Gowrishankar Peak is the abode of Shiva and Parvathi), Amarnath, Kedarnath, Badrinath, Kailas, Tirupathi, Srishyla, Annamalai, Shabarimalai, Kodachadri, Arunadri.
• Sacred Rivers: Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswathi, Kaveri, Narmada, Sindhu, Godavari. Addressed as "mata" (e.g., Ganga Mata).
• Sacred Trees/Plants: Ashwatha and the pipal trees, and plants such as 'Tulasi', 'Deva Parijatha'.
• Environmental Ethic: Nature is considered the Mother. The Hindu tradition opposes exploitation; the concept used was 'milking', not exploitation, indicating total solidarity with nature.

Key Terms

📌 Exam Tidbits

• Max Muller (1882): "There is, in fact, an unbroken continuity between the most modern and the most ancient phases of Hindu thought, extending over more than 3000 years."
• Max Muller (1882): "If we were to look over the whole world to find out the country most richly endowed with all the wealth, power, and beauty that nature can bestow - in some parts a very paradise on earth - I should point to India. If I were asked under what sky the human mind has most fully developed some of its choicest gifts, has most deeply pondered over the greatest problems of life, and has found solutions of some of them which well deserve the attention even of those who have studied Plato and Kant - I should point to India. And if I were to ask myself from what literature we here in Europe, we who have been nurtured almost exclusively on the thoughts of Greeks and Romans, and of one Semitic race, the Jewish, may draw the corrective which is most wanted in order to make our inner life more perfect, more comprehensive, more universal, in fact more truly human a life, not for this life only, but a transfigured and eternal life - again I should point to India."
• Jadunath Sarkar (1979): "This common Indian type has stood the test of time, it has outlined the shock of dynastic revolutions, foreign invasions, religious conflicts, and widespread natural disasters....."
• Professor Macdonell: "The importance of Indian literature as a whole consists in its originality. When the Greeks towards the end of the 4th century B.C. invaded the north-west, the Indians had already worked out a national culture of their own, unaffected by foreign influences. And in spite of successive waves of invasion and conquest by Persians, Greeks, Scythians, Mohammedans, the national development of the life and literature of the Indo-Aryan race remained practically unchecked and unmodified from without down to the era of British occupation. No other branch of the Indo-European stock has experienced an isolated evolution like this. No other country except China can trace back its language and literature, its religious beliefs and rites, its dramatic and social customs through an uninterrupted development of more than 3,000 years."
• S.C. Dube (1990): "In the past, foreign travellers – among others, Megasthenese [315 B.C], Fa-Heien [A.D. 405 - 11], Huan Tsang [A.D. 630 - 44], Alberuni [A.D. 1030], Marco Polo [A.D. 1288, 93], and Ibn Batuta [A.D. 1325-51]– observed and recorded this. After the partition of India. this aspect has been passionately articulated both as a reality of the past and as the hope for the future......"
• Herbert Risley (1911): "Beneath the manifold diversity of physical and social type, language, custom, and religion which strike the observer in India, there can still be discerned....... a certain underlying uniformity of life from the Himalayas to Cape Camorin."
• The Cultural Heritage of India: "Spiritual life is the true genius of India. Those who make the greatest appeal to the Indian mind are not the military conquerors, not the rich merchants or the great diplomats, but the holy sages, the rsis who embody spirituality at its finest and purest. India's pride is that almost in every generation and in every part of the country, from the time of her recorded history, she has produced these holy men who embody for her all that the country holds most dear and sacred. Though they generally remain away from the main stream of life, kings and commoners pay reverent homage to them and take their advice in the problems of their personal lives as well as in public affairs. By their lives they teach us that pride and power, wealth and glory, are nothing in comparison with the power of Spirit. It is those who scorn their own lives that raise life above our scorn."
• Swami Vivekananda: "If there is any land on this earth that can lay claim to be the blessed Punya-Bhumi, to be the land to which souls on this earth must come to account for Karma, the land to which every soul that is wending its way Godward must come to attain its last home, the land where humanity has attained its highest towards gentleness, towards generosity, towards purity, towards calmness, above all, the land of introspection and of spirituality. – It is India."
• Science and Technology in Ancient India: "There is a general impression among scholars abroad, and even among educated Indians, that our heritage as enshrined in ancient Indian works is primarily religio-philosophical. There is hardly anything worthwhile to mention about our scientific and technological past."
• Science and Technology in Ancient India: "Classical works of the Indian medical system Ayurveda, like the “Charaka Samhita” and the "Ashtanga Hridaya” on medicine, and “Sushruta Samhita" on surgery, are consulted even today by Indian medical practitioners."
• Gandhiji: "religions differ only in non-essentials while in essentials they agree."
• Tagore: "These religions differ in details and often in their moral significance, but they have a common tendency. In them men seek their own supreme value which they call divine, in some personality anthropomorphic in character."
• K.M. Kapadia: "It is not only the political life of the people of Hindustan, but the religion, mythology, art and literature of the Hindus that bear the imprint of the great mountain barrier."
• Atharva Vedic Sookta: "Whenever we dig up from thee, O Mother, let it be immediately replenished; may we not cause hurt to thy vital organs. May we not harm thy heart."
• 6 characteristics of Indian Tradition: Ancient/Continuous, Unity in Diversity, Dharma as Life-Centre, Scientific Aspect, Spirit of Tolerance, Harmony with Nature.

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Hinduism: The Ancient Religion of India

Hinduism is a living religion that denotes a way of life and thinking, giving more importance to spiritual and moral principles than to dogmas or rituals. It has contributed to Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity, Islam, and Zorostrianism.

Emergence of the word "Hindu"

• The word "Hindu" is not of Indian origin. Ancient Persians pronounced the river "Sindhu" as "Hindu". The Arabs referred to it as "al-Hind". The Greeks called the river "Indus" and the people "Indos".
• The British popularised the word "India" and introduced the term "Hinduism" in 1830.
• Traditional names: Sanatana Dharma (eternal religion, preferred by Sri Aurobindo), Vaidika Dharma (rooted in Vedas), Arya Dharma ("Arya" means great/noble), and Vedanta Dharma.

General Characteristics of Hinduism

The source enumerates 18 characteristics:

1. An Ancient Religion: Considered the most ancient, comprehensive, and influential religion.
2. A way of life: As M.K. Gandhi points out, it is more than a religion; it is a complex combination of religious, philosophical, and ethical notions pervading every aspect of life.
3. No Founder and No Central Authoritative Organisation: Not founded by a single prophet/angel. Lacks a single central authority, universally accepted hierarchy, or a single sacred scripture (unlike the Bible, Quran, or Tripitakas).
4. Universality and Catholicity: Allows widest freedom in faith and worship. The Rig Veda states "the truth is one and sages call it by various names." Cherishes sarva dharma samabhava (equal respect to all religions).
5. Synthesis of Many Sects: A collectivity of sects, including Vaishnavism (worship of Vishnu; e.g., Sri Vaishnavas, Sri Chaitanyas), Shaivism (worship of Shiva; e.g., Veerashaivism of Karnataka and Kashmiri Shaivism of Kashmir), and Shaktism (worship of Divine Motherhood). Also includes cults (Radha-Krishna cult, Ram-Sita cult, Ganesha cult, Bhakti cult, Ayyappa cult). Features henotheism and the unique concept of Ishtadevata.
6. Idol Worship and Nature Worship: Idols vary by sect (Krishna, Rama, Shiva, Ganesh, Hanuman, Kali). Early Indians worshipped personified nature forces (Indra [God of wind], Savitr [Sun God], Yama [God of death], Soma [the Moon God] and Prithvi [the Mother Goddess]), which declined with the rise of Shaiva/Vaishnava sects in the first millennium A.D.
7. Concrete and Abstract Concepts of God:
   • Abstract: God as one Supreme Principle, formless (Nirakara Brahma) and beyond earthly qualities (Nirguna Brahma).
   • Concrete: God with form (sakara Brahma) and qualities (saguna Brahma), taking different names/forms (Rama, Krishna, Shiva, Ganesha, Hanuman) represented by idols.

8. Basic Theological Ideas: Includes punarjanma [transmigration of soul or rebirth], immortality of atma [soul], papa [sin], punya [merit], Karma [deeds], dharma [morality] and moksha [salvation].
9. Major Schools of Philosophy: Grouped into Astika (accepts Vedas: Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, Vedanta) and Nastika (rejects Vedas: Bouddha, Jaina).

10. Concepts of Purity and Pollution: Important in popular Hinduism (commensal relations, physical distance, life events like birth, marriage, menstruation, death, offering prayers). Addressed via purificatory rites and shodasha samskaras (16 sacraments, e.g., namakarma, upanayana, vivaha, pretakarma).
11. The Hindu Ethics: Guided by more than 30 smritis/dharmashastras (composed by Manu, Yagnavalkya, Parashara) which suggest right conduct. However, the rigidity imposed by them on certain areas resulted in a few problems.
12. Goals of Life (Purusharthas): Four ends: dharma, artha, kama, moksha.
13. Varnashrama Dharma: Twin social organisations. Ashrama Dharma (Brahmacharya, Grihasta, Vanaprastha, Sanyasa) and Varna Dharma (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra).
14. Does not Believe in Conversions: Permits adaptability and intellectual inquiry. Does not proselytize because it believes truth is not a monopoly.
15. Tolerant Towards Other Religions: Accommodates Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, etc. Confrontations never took the shape of a "Crusade" or "Jihad".
16. Receptivity and All-comprehensiveness: Infinite adaptability to infinite diversity, offering something to all minds (philosopher, poet, man of peace), as emphasized by Monier-Williams about a hundred years ago.
17. Neither Intolerant Nor Fundamentaistic: Believes in Dharma Rajya (Rule of Law), not theocracy.

18. Dominant Life Values: Cherishes 5 dominant values: Truthfulness, Non-violence (Ahimsa), Respect for womanhood, Respect for Nature, and Harmony.

The Elevating Power of Hinduism

Hinduism's internal force sought to elevate foreign invaders, acting as a civilizing agency rather than a dogmatic creed.

Conclusion

Hinduism is a way of life based on justice and harmony. It signifies harmony among Man, Universe, and God, and among castes, classes, creeds, and faiths. It believes the whole world is one family (Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam).

Key Terms

📌 Exam Tidbits

• Sri Aurobindo: "The religious culture which now goes by the name of Hinduism.. gave itself no name, because it set itself no sectarian limits; it claimed no universal adhesion, asserted no sole infallible dogma, set up no single narrow path or gate of salvation; it was less a creed or cult than a continuously enlarging tradition, of the Godward endeavour of the human spirit. An immense many-sided and many-staged provision for a spiritual self-building and self-finding, it had some right to speak of itself by the only name it knew, the eternal religion, sanatana dharma......."
• Rig Veda: "the truth is one and sages call it by various names."
• Footnote 1, page 10: "As a man himself sows, so he himself reaps; no man inherits the good or evil act of another man. The fruit is of the same quality as the action; and whether good or bad, there is no destruction of the action."
• Yajnavalkya: "punya vai punyena Karmana bhavati papah papeneti" (an individual becomes virtuous by virtuous action and vicious by vicious action).
• Hopkins: "Karma struck hard against the old belief in sacrifice, penance and repentance."
• C.E.M. Joad: "Hinduism developed from the first a wide tolerance. Hindus do not proselytize: they do not claim exclusive claim to salvation and they do not believe that God will be pleased by the wholesome slaughter of His Creatures whose beliefs are mistaken. As a result, Hinduism has been less degraded than most religions by the anomaly of creed wars."
• The Gazetteer of India: "Receptivity and all-comprehensiveness, it has been aptly stated, are the main characteristics of Hinduism. Since it has had no difficulty in bringing diverse faiths within its ever-widening fold, it has something to offer to almost all minds."
• Monier-Williams (Brahminism and Hinduism): Emphasized Hinduism's receptivity and all-comprehensiveness, noting its infinite adaptability to infinite diversity.
• Jadunath Sarkar (India Through the Ages, 1979): "The moral transformation of savage foreigners is the greatest glory of India and a proof of the death-defying vitality of Hinduism, considered not as a dogmatic creed (which it never was), but as a social force and civilizing agency. The spirit of India has triumphed over time and change and kept the composite Indian people's mind as active and keen as in the best days of pure Aryan ascendance. The blending of races here has not led to the intellectual and moral deterioration which is found among the present-day mixed population of what was once Spanish America."
• Gandhiji: "My life would be a burden to me, if Hinduism failed me."
• 18 characteristics of Hinduism are enumerated in the text.
• 5 dominant life values of Hindu society: Truthfulness, Non-violence, Respect for womanhood, Respect for Nature, Harmony.

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THE PHILOSOPHICAL LITERATURE OF THE HINDUS

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Vedas, Upanishads and Bhagavad-Gita

The authoritative sources of Hinduism are divided into two classes:

II. THE VEDAS OR THE SRUTIS

Vedas are the "Revealed Truth"

Vedas are direct intuitional revelations held to be apaurusheya (not created by man). They do not owe authority to any single person, angel, or prophet. The Rishis are discoverers, not inventors. Sayanacharya stated: "God created the whole universe out of the knowledge of the Vedas."

Vedas are Dateless and Without Beginning ?

Vedas are words of Supernatural power, not utterances of persons. Traditionally, their date cannot be fixed. However, historians believe they were composed between 2500 B.C. and 500 B.C.

"Veda" means knowledge

Derived from the root "vid" (to know). It is the source of secondary scriptures (Dharmashastras, Ithihasas, Puranas, Agamas, Darsanas). Sayanacharya defined Veda as "a book which reveals the knowledge of supernatural methods [alaukika Upaya] for the achievement of the desired object and the avoidance of the undesirable."

The Four Vedas

According to tradition, in the beginning of the Dvapara Age, Krishna Dvaipayana revived Vedic study and classified the Vedas into four, earning the name Veda-Vyasa.

Divisions within each Veda

Each Veda has 4 parts, aligned with the four Ashramas:

Classification of the Subject-Matter of the Vedas as a Whole

1. Karma-Kanda (Ritualistic Section): Mantras and Brahmanas.
2. Upasana-Kanda (Worship Section): Aranyakas.
3. Jnana-Kanda (Knowledge Section): Upanishads.

Socio-Cultural Importance of the Vedas

The source enumerates 5 points of importance:

1. Basis of Indian Culture: The fountainhead of entire Indian Culture and earliest scriptural evidence of inner life.
2. Influence on Secondary Scriptures: Root of Dharmashastras, Ithihasas, Puranas, Agamas, and Darshanas. Puranic mythology is based on Vedic mythology.
3. Basis of the Upanishads: Upanishads make explicit the truths implicit in Vedic mantras. "The Vedas are the sturdy tree on which blossom the fragrant Upanishads."
4. Glorify the Vedic Ideals: The Vedic age is recognised as the ideal; subsequent ages attempted to model life after it.
5. Aim at Making Man a Perfect Being: Aim to make man a perfect spirit like God. Pandit Nehru (Discovery of India) praised their vitality and affirmation of life, noting "here is no idolatry in them [Vedas]; no temples for the Gods. The vitality and affirmation of life pervading them are extra-ordinary".

The Upanishads : Their Essential Principles and Message

Upanishads are the concluding portions of the Vedas, hence called Vedanta (end of the Vedas). They are "the finest flower of the Vedic thought."

• The word Upa-ni-sad literally means to sit down near someone for the purpose of study (sitting at the feet of the teacher). It also means knowledge that helps attain the supreme Brahman.

Basic Theme of the Upanishads

Revolves around Brahman, Atman, Moksha, Samsara, Karma, Upasana, and Knowledge. They answer questions about the relation between Brahman-Jiva-Jagat (God-Soul-Universe), survival after death, heaven, and ultimate truth. God is declared as "the Being that is to be known only through the Upanishads".

The Important Upanishads

• Count: About 220 Upanishads exist today, out of which 108 are considered ancient.
• Dates: Believed composed between 1200 B.C and 600 B.C. (Historians). According to Balgangadhar Tilak, they are as old as 2000 B.C. based on a reference in the Maitrayania Upanishad. There is a controversy regarding the exact period in which they were composed.
• 13 Important Upanishads: Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Aitareya, Taitiriya, Chhandogya, Brihadaranyaka, Kaushitaki, Svetasvatara, and Maitrayania.
• The first 10 are famous as Dashopanishads. Recognised by the three great Acharyas: Sri Shankaracharya, Sri Madhvacharya and Sri Ramanujacharya.

The Cardinal Principles of the Upanishads

Formulated as 5 simple truths:

1. The Brahman (God) is all pervasive: All manifestation (including the difference between matter and spirit, the good and the evil, the divine and the devil, and so on) is a manifestation of the divine.
2. Atman and Brahman are inseparable: The divine spirit is in every human. Brahman is identified with "Atman" (self).
3. Oneness of Humanity: Humans are "children of immortality", leading to the concept of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam.
4. Unity of all Religions: Essential unity of all spiritual paths.
5. Welfare of all Beings: Aims at welfare of all creation, including lower creatures.

Message of the Upanishads

The source enumerates 6 messages:

1. Commitment to truth: "Truth alone triumphs, not falsehood", "lead me from unreal to real, from darkness to light and from death to immortality".
2. Strength, fearlessness, and hope: Vivekananda called them a "great mine of strength". Watch-words are physical freedom, mental freedom and spiritual freedom.
3. Happiness is internal: Physical enjoyment/wealth cannot bring happiness. "there is no bliss in finite things, the Infinite alone is bliss".
4. Assert divine heritage: Universal appeal breaking all fetters, recognising no limits, geographical, racial, or any other.
5. Integral humanism: Stresses Jivatma and Paramatma co-existing. Stresses "self" realisation (Atma Jnana). "Know that one Atman alone, and give up all other talk. This is the bridge to immortality".
6. Principle of Karma: No escape from duty. "Arise! Awake! and Stop not till the Goal is Reached!!"

On the Importance of Upanishads...

• Prof. Hume asserts they are "of great present day importance" to counter "materiality".
• Mead and Chattopadhyaya call them a world-scripture with tremendous appeal.
• Blookfield: "There is no important form of Hindu thought... which is not rooted in the Upanishads."
• Dr. S. Radhakrishnan: "later systems of philosophy display an anxiety to accommodate their doctrines to the views of Upanishads."
• The various Acharyas of Hinduism like Shankara, Ramanuja and Vallabha interpreted the Upanishads to suit their respective theories.

The Smritis and their Contents

Smritis are secondary scriptures deriving authority from the Sruti, aiming to expand/exemplify Vedic principles. There are 5 types:

Bhagavad Gita and Its Importance

The Gita is the philosophical basis of popular Hinduism, presenting Upanishadic thoughts practically. Known as the "handbook of Hinduism".

• Literally means "Song of the Lord".
• Consists of 700 Sanskrit verses divided into 18 chapters.
• Appears in the Bhishmaparva of the Mahabharata as a dialogue between Sri Krishna and Arjuna.

Causes for the Popularity of the Gita (3 reasons):

1. Part of the Mahabharata (the fifth Veda).
2. Preacher is Sri Krishna (Avatar of God, invincible warrior, wise preceptor, Yogi).
3. It is one of the Prasthanatraya (the three foundational works: Upanishads, Brahmasutras, Gita).

• Shankaracharya's commentary (the earliest known) and 18th-century English translations boosted its popularity.

The Context of the Gita: Opens at the battlefield of Kurukshetra. Arjuna refuses to fight due to role-conflict and fear of murdering kin. Krishna advises him to discharge duties regardless of consequences (nishkama karma). Krishna justifies this via an analysis of man, Nature, and God rooted in Upanishadic spiritualism.

Commentaries on the Gita:

• Ancient: Shanakara (earliest), Bhaskara, Ramanuja, Madhav, Nilakantha, Sridhara and Madhusudana.
• Modern: Balagangadhara Tilak, Sri Aurobindo, M.K. Gandhi and Sarvapalli Radhakrishnanan.

Importance of Bhagavad Gita (5 points):

1. Highlights Upanishadic message: Functions as a commentary. Shankaracharya called it "a summary of the essential ideals of all Veda." Popular verse compares Upanishads to cows, Gita to milk, Krishna to cowherd, Arjuna to calf.
2. Universal message: Addressed to all men. The author establishes no sect/school.
3. Doctrine of Integral Yoga: Teaches 4 paths to God: Karma Yoga (path of work), Jnana Yoga (path of knowledge), Bhakti Yoga (path of devotion), and Raja Yoga (path of psychic control). Urges a balanced combination.
4. Doctrine of Niskama Karma Yoga: Distinguishes between Kamya-Karmas (desire-motivated) and Niskama-Karmas (desireless). Work must be performed as a "yajna" (sacrifice) giving up desire for fruits, which leads to Moksha.

5. Projection of an Ideal Person: Projects the "yogin" as a man of both contemplation and action.

Conclusion: Gita gives a synopsis of Indian religious thought. It inspired modern men: Swami Vivekananda, Madana Mohana Malavia, Lokmanya Tilak, Gandhiji, Tagore, Aravind, Vinobha Bhave.

• Madana Mohana Malavia: "I believe that in all the living languages of the world, there is no book so full of true knowledge, and yet so handy as the Bhagavad Gita..."

Key Terms

📌 Exam Tidbits

• Sayanacharya: "God created the whole universe out of the knowledge of the Vedas."
• Sayanacharya defined Veda as: "a book which reveals the knowledge of supernatural methods [alaukika Upaya] for the achievement of the desired object and the avoidance of the undesirable."
• The Cultural Heritage of India: "Thus, in later periods everything that was valuable in man's life was traced back to the Vedas. Philosophy, religion, codes of conduct, all the sciences - everything was traced to the Vedas."
• D.S. Sharma: "With that aim in view they try to create political and social institutions which will help the spiritual development of every man according to his capacity. They rouse his imagination, they quicken his intellect and form his character and thus guide him along the steep and difficult path of ascent that leads to God."
• Pandit Nehru (Discovery of India): "here is no idolatry in them [Vedas]; no temples for the Gods. The vitality and affirmation of life pervading them are extra-ordinary".
• Source text: "It is open to us all to verify their statements by actual experience along the lines prescribed by them. The truths inculcated in them are not mere theories, but facts..."
• Translation of Isavasyamidam...: "Whatever exists, and wherever, is permeated by the same divine power."
• Vivekananda: "The Upanishads are the great mine of strength. Therein lies strength enough to invigorate the whole world through them..."
• Indian Inheritance: "Purity of life and a mind free from selfish desires are essential for this enlightenment."
• Sve-Upa. II. 5: "They are the greatest unifying factor in the world for all time. They break all the fetters of mankind and raise man to their true status as children of immortality".
• Paul Deussen: "....we claim for it an inestimable value for the whole race of mankind."
• Mead and Chattopadhyaya: "...to the lovers of religion and truth, in all races and at all times, without distinction."
• Schopenhauer: "From every sentence [of the Upanishads] deep, original, sublime thoughts arise... In the whole world there is no study so beneficial and so elevating as that of the Upanishads... They are the products of the highest wisdom. It is destined sooner or later to become the faith of the people."
• Schopenhauer: "the study of the Upanishads has been the solace of my life, it will be solace of my death."
• Indian Inheritance: "the most beautiful, perhaps the only true philosophical song existing in any known tongue."
• R.N. and R.K. Sharma: "Thus, in the Gita also, as in the Upanishads the relationship of unitariness existing between man, Nature and God has been pronounced."
• Swami Shivananda: "The Gita is the most precious jewel of Hindu literature. It is a universal gospel. The Gita teaches the Yoga of Synthesis. It ranks high in the religious literature of the world."
• Shankaracharya: Referred to the Gita as "a summary of the essential ideals of all Veda."
• Source text: "addresses no sect, establishes no school, but opens the way to all the winds that blow."
• Indian Inheritance: "Though the Gita did much to develop spiritual worship and undermine inhuman practices, still on account of its non-critical attitude it did not destroy altogether false modes or [ignorant modes] of worship."
• D.S. Sharma: "...a practical mystic whose head is in solitude, but whose hands are in society. His action proceeds out of his contemplation, and his contemplation is rooted in his love of God."
• Gandhiji (Young India, 6-8-1925): "When doubts haunt me, when disappointment stare me in the face and I see not one ray of hope on the horizon, I turn to Bhagavad Gita and find a verse to comfort me and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming sorrow."
• 4 Vedas: Rig, Yajur, Sama, Atharva.
• 4 Parts of each Veda: Mantra-Samhita, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads.
• 6 Darsanas: Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, Vedanta.
• 4 Yogas in Gita: Karma, Jnana, Bhakti, Raja.

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Purusharthas Representing Hindu View of Life

The Concept of 'Purusharthas'

The Hindu attitude to life is oriented towards four noble ends, exemplified in the Dharmashastras as the "Purusharthas".

Meaning of "Purusharthas"

The fundamental principle of Indian social ethics. The word implies 'attainments' or 'life-purposes'. They are the guiding principles of life at all stages, forming the foundation of the entire Hindu social organisation.

The Four Purusharthas: Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha

Note: Dharma, Artha, and Kama are called trivargas (means), while Moksha alone is called chaturvarga (supreme end).

Kinds of Dharma (7 types by Manu):

Sources of Dharma (5 sources by Manu): Of these five sources of the Dharma mentioned by Manu, which one must be considered supreme and ultimate-? whether the things stated in the Vedas are final or the interpretations given by the scholars which are often different from those of the Vedas, are ultimate-? How can one resolve this confusion-? – These questions do arise in the minds of even honest persons who follow the Dharma. As far as Manu is concerned, for all confusions and controversies relating to the Dharma, Vedas are the ultimate authority.

• Yajnavalkya declares similarly: "the Veda, traditional lore, the usages of good men, what is agreeable to one's self and desire born of due deliberation".

Importance of Purusharthas

The source enumerates 5 points of importance:

1. Signify the Hindu attitude towards life: Often equated with Hindu philosophy itself.
2. Harmony between the Material and the Spiritual: The four ends are interrelated, coordinating material desires and spiritual life to lead man from 'samsara' to 'moksha'.
3. Co-ordination among various Desires, Needs and Interests: Resolves apparent conflicts between economic, emotional, aesthetic, intellectual, spiritual, ethical, and instinctive forces.
4. No Attempt to Decry Sex and Disregard Material Aspirations: Hinduism does not condemn material aspirations; it insists on balance. Artha and Kama are desirable but subordinated to Dharma.
5. Constitute the basis of "Varnashrama Dharma": They are the guiding principles for both Ashrama Dharma (individual conduct) and Varna Dharma (social stratification).

Key Terms

📌 Exam Tidbits

• Source text: "dharanat dharma ityahuh"
• Dr. S. Radhakrishnan: ".... Every form of life, every group of men has its Dharma which is the law of its beings. Dharma or virtue is conformity with the truth of things, 'adharma' or vice, is opposition to it."
• P.V. Kane (History of Dharmashastra): "the writers in Dharmashastras meant by Dharma not a creed or religion but a mode of life or a code of conduct which regulated a man's work and activities as a member of a society and as an individual..."
• Mahabharata: "created for the well-being of all creation."
• Mahabharata: "All that is free from doing harm to any created being is essentially Dharma..."
• Bhagavad-Gita: "He who protects [follows] dharma, is protected in turn by Dharma."
• Source text: "Dharma is what Dharma accomplishes."
• M. Nanjammanni: "It enjoins the members of the society to subject themselves to obligations and responsibilities regardless of individual differences..."
• Yajnavalkya: "the Veda, traditional lore, the usages of good men, what is agreeable to one's self and desire born of due deliberation - this is traditionally recognised as the sources of dharma."
• 4 Purusharthas: Dharma, Artha, Kama, Moksha.
• 7 types of Dharma by Manu: Samanya, Raja, Stree, Dampatya, Varna, Ashrama, Apaddharma.
• 5 sources of Dharma by Manu: Vedas, tradition/practices, Smrities, usages of virtuous men, truth/self-satisfaction.

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VI. THE ASHRAMA DHARMA OR SYSTEM

The Concept of "Varnashrama Dharma"

Ancient Hindu thinkers formulated two co-ordinated systems:

Together, they form Varnashrama Vyavastha or Varnashrama Dharma, guided by the Purusharthas.

The Concept of Ashrama Dharma

A well-established socio-religious institution of ancient India where the theory of Purusharthas gets concrete expression.

Meaning of the word "Ashrama"

Derived from the Sanskrit root srama (making an effort). Literally denotes a halting/resting place, a step in the journey of life, stages, monastry, or duties. Every ashrama is a step towards 'Moksha'.

The Four Ashramas

Assuming a life span of 100 years, each stage consists of 25 years.

Note on Panchamahayajnas (5 great sacrifices of Grihastha):

1. Deva Yajna: oblations to Devas with Vedic Mantras.
2. Rishi Yajna: study/teaching of Vedas, oblations to Rishis.
3. Pitri Yajna: Tarpana (ablutions) and 'sraddha' (annual rites) for departed souls.
4. Bhuta Yajna: distribution of food to cows, crows, animals.
5. Nara Yajna (Atithi Yajna): giving food to guests and honouring them.

Importance of Ashrama System

The source enumerates 5 points of importance:

1. A Noble Socio-Philosophical System: Provides guidelines for planning man's life in the direction of Brahman.
2. Reveals the Planning of Individual's Life: P.H. Valvalkar calls it "a kind of schooling and self-discipline" based on psychological study of interests/needs at different ages.
3. Insistence on Duties and Discipline: Smritis prescribe 10 characteristic features for all ashramas (quoted by P.H. Prabhu): Steadiness, forgiveness, self-control, abstention from appropriating anything belonging to others, purity, control of the sense organs, correct discernment, knowledge, truthfulness and absence from anger.
4. Interdependence of the Society and the Individual: Society protects individual in stage 1; individual supports society in stage 2; neutral self-search in stage 3; total retirement for self-realisation in stage 4.
5. Individual Development and Social Welfare are Mutually Complementary: No conflict between individual and society. Both are expressions of Brahman. Paul Deussen praised its grandeur. Emphasised by modern thinkers (Vivekananda, Rabindranath Tagore, Sri Aurobindo, M.K. Gandhi).

Ashrama Dharma Under Modern Conditions

Today, only Grihasthashrama is prevalent and significant; others have disappeared or paled. The spirit can be revived: students lead pure lives, householders practice self-restraint/tolerance, and older people gradually withdraw to practice selfless service and meditation.

Key Terms

📌 Exam Tidbits

• Manu Smriti: "As all streams and rivers flow to rest in the ocean, so all the ashramas flow to rest in the householder."
• Taitiriya Upanishad (Convocation address): "Speak the truth. Do your duty... Regard your mother as a god [Matridevo Bhava]. Regard your father as a god [Pitri-devo Bhava]. Regard your teacher as a god [Acharya-devo Bhava]. Regard your guest as a god [Athithi-devo Bhava]."
• P.H. Valvalkar: Described the Ashrama stages as "a kind of schooling and self-discipline".
• R.N. and R.K. Sharma: "Therefore, there was hardly much distinction between individual and social welfare, individual and social development, individual and social salvation. Hence, when the ashrama system helped the individual welfare, development and salvation, it at the same time contributed to social welfare, development and salvation."
• Paul Deussen: "the entire history of mankind does not produce much that approaches in grandeur to this thought."
• 4 Ashramas: Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha, Sanyasa.
• 5 Panchamahayajnas: Deva, Rishi, Pitri, Bhuta, Nara/Atithi.

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Varna Dharma and Its Importance

The Varnas or Social Classes

The later Vedic Society was divided into four Varnas (comparable to social classes): Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.

Origin of the Varnas: Based on division of labour. The Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda and the Code of Manu state the four Varnas emerged from the Virat Purusha (Divine Force):

This symbolises the "Body Social" with organic unity.

Varnas Were Not Rigid Classes: In the Vedic Age (4000 to 1000 B.C.), professions were not hereditary.

• Kshatriyas could become Brahmanas (e.g., Vishwamitra).
• Vaishyas could teach Vedas.
• Dharma Sutras [500 B.C.] permitted a Brahman to follow a Kshatriya if necessary, and permitted food cooked by a shaved/bathed Shudra for sacrifice.
• Intermarriages among traivarnikas (first three Varnas) occurred: sage Atri's son married a Kshatriya princess; sage Agasthya's wife, Lopamudra, was a Kshatriya.
• Rigidity grew during the Brahmanical period (200 B.C. to 700 A.D.) as rituals increased Brahmana power.

Varna and Distribution of Guna and Karma: Varna provided scope for personality development based on gunas:

Social Importance of Varna System

The source enumerates 5 points of social importance:

1. Stressed work/Karma: Individual followed his nature to arrive at perfection.
2. Swadharma is the link with God: Gita (3-35) says "Better is one's own dharma, though imperfect than the dharma of another well discharged". Gita (18-46) says "Worshipping Him [God] with his own duty man attains perfection."
3. No inequalities: All work is dignified. The arrangement ensures supply of workers/teachers, not inequalities.
4. Interdependence of Varnas: Based on scientific division of labour. P.V. Kane notes Manu's theory balanced rival claims, emphasising duties over rights. Constant upward/downward mobility existed in theory.
5. A Harmonious System: Value-based system ensuring social harmony, justice, fairness, equality, and maximum social responsibility.

Note on Caste Degeneration: By the time of Epics/Puranas, Varna-sankara (intermixture of classes) created innumerable castes. Originally, there was no 5th class (Panchama Varna / untouchables). Dr. S. Radhakrishnan points out the caste system is a degeneration of the Varna system.

Key Terms

📌 Exam Tidbits

• Prof. S. Nanjammanni: "The whole social organisation is here conceived symbolically as one human being the 'Body Social' – with its organs representing the social classes based on the principle of division of labour. The same idea is expressed in the Vishnu Purana, Mahabharata and the Bhagavadgita."
• Indian Culture: "Satvika guna gave the Brahmanas learning and knowledge, and the Vaishyas, intelligence and skilled craftsmenship. The Rajasa guna gave the Kshatriya power and action, while the Tamasa guna made the Shudra fit for labour and service."
• Bhagavad Gita (3-35): "Better is one's own dharma, though imperfect than the dharma of another well discharged, better death in one's own dharma; the dharma of another is full of fear."
• Bhagavad Gita (18-46): "Worshipping Him [God] with his own duty man attains perfection."
• Bhagavad Gita (4-13): Lord Krishna says, "The fourfold caste was created by Me by the different distribution of guna and karma".
• P.V. Kane (History of Dharmashastras): "The theory of Varnas as conceived by Manu and other smritikaras was based upon the idea of the division of labour, on the idea of balancing the rival claims of various sections of the community, it laid greater emphasis upon the duties of the Varnas rather than upon their rights and privileges."
• Dr. S. Radhakrishnan: Pointed out that the caste system is a degeneration of the class, or Varna system.
• 4 Varnas: Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra.
• 3 Gunas: Satvika, Rajasa, Tamasa.

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Traditional Characteristics of the Hindu Society

Hinduism remains the major religion and dominant tradition in India. S.C. Dube enlists 7 basic features of the traditional Hindu society:

1. Hierarchical Arrangement of the Hindu Society: Based on the vertically arranged Chaturvarna system, plus a fifth stratum outside it. Within Varnas are several "jatis" (castes) fitted into a fixed hierarchy.
2. The Belief in the Ascribed Status: Status is determined by the accident of birth in a particular jati, not by capacity or achievement, making upward mobility difficult and slow.

3. Status Evaluation Based on the Criterion of Ritual: Economic/political criteria were insignificant compared to ritual status. Physical touch or inter-dining with lower groups caused pollution, governed by elaborate purity rules.
4. Purusharthas ("Life-Purposes"): The four noble ends deciding the Hindu view of life:
   • Dharma: Supreme principle, path of righteousness holding the universe together.
   • Artha: Material possessions, wealth, and power acquired honestly.
   • Kama: Bodily desires (sexual, emotional, aesthetic).
   • Moksha: Ultimate aim of salvation.
5. Ashrama System: Complementary to Purusharthas, ordering life into four stages:
   • Brahmacharya: Celibacy, studenthood, amassing knowledge.
   • Grihastha: Householder earning wealth, fulfilling sex, begetting children.
   • Vanaprastha: Gradual detachment, spiritual contentment.
   • Sanyasa: Renunciation, wandering mystic, sacrifice incarnate.
6. Hindu's Notion of Fulfilling Obligations / Debts / Rins: Repayment of debts owed to Gods, sages, ancestors, animals, and society via the panchamahayajnas (Deva, Rishi, Pitri, Buta, Nara/Atithi Yajna).
7. Influence of the Doctrine of "Karma": Deeds of previous lives influence the present, and present deeds determine future lives. Karma links desires and rebirth. Destruction of desire frees man from the cycle. Accepted by Buddhists and Jains as well.

Conclusion

These ideological aspects have tremendous appeal. S.C. Dube notes: "these features pertain to tradition and texts, not necessarily to the social reality on the ground. With the changing times they have undergone considerable modification." Yet, they impacted Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Islam, and Christianity in India. Modern bases for unity (education, transport, industrialisation) have emerged, though challenges (religious misunderstandings and prejudices, caste rivalries, fanaticism in linguistic and regional matters, ethnic clashes) persist.

Key Terms

📌 Exam Tidbits

• S.C. Dube: "The framework of traditional Hindu society has some broad features which are common throughout India. In fact, their influence can be seen even in communities professing religions of alien origin."
• S.C. Dube: "these features pertain to tradition and texts, not necessarily to the social reality on the ground. With the changing times they have undergone considerable modification."
• 7 traditional characteristics of Hindu society enlisted by S.C. Dube.

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